Substance Abuse - Effects on Society

General Substance Abuse and Its Effects on Society

Substance abuse is one of the most prevalent issues that the current generation is forced to face. It has been around for centuries and has afflicted millions of people around the world. It is mainly a health concern but over the past decades, it has escalated into one of the worst social ills.

Drug and alcohol addiction does not only affect the individual himself but everyone around him. Ultimately, the society is largely affected by his predisposition for substance use even when he's just one person. It is a social ill because practically every country in the world is compelled to come up with legislation, policies and other ideas geared at addressing the problem.

Substance Abuse - Effects on Society

Most experts agree that addiction has a ripple effect. It brings discord not only into the home but to the society as well.

Effects on the family

Parents who abuse drugs or alcohol tend to neglect their children leaving them to their own devices. Because they are preoccupied with their addictions, they fail to provide the proper guidance that children need especially during their growing years. Teenagers who grow up in homes where a respected adult or parent uses alcohol or drugs have a higher tendency for developing the addiction later on mainly because the household is more lenient in terms of substance use.

The community

According to statistics, drunk driving results to an injury every minute and one death every 32 minutes. In the United States, about 40% of traffic-related casualties are linked to alcohol use. Crime rates go up because of addiction related incidents. In 1992, over 25% of violent crimes and property crimes were attributed to drug and alcohol abuse. Three to four percent of social welfare cases in the country were caused by substance abuse. Income maintenance, cash assistance, foster care and other social welfare programs had to spend a lot on households affected by substance abuse.

Substance abuse impairs the individual's productivity. It can affect his ability to maintain a full-time job. In cases where addicts are even able to maintain employment, the people around them are placed at risk.

Economics

Substance abuse causes the government to spend a lot of money that could otherwise be spent on education or other channels. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse and the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism in the US, the total economic cost of substance abuse has reached to a whopping 5 billion. This was spent on treatment and prevention costs, healthcare, losses on job productivity and crime and social welfare.

Health issues

Substance abuse can lead to the prevalence of more health issues. Crimes are just one thing but the spread of certain types of illnesses is another one of the many impacts of addiction. People who are addicted are apt to behave irresponsibly. This essentially translates to undertaking dangerous sexual activities and making wrong decisions that are otherwise prevented by sobriety. Irresponsible sexual activities can lead to the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, HIV and AIDS.

Substance abuse, therefore, is a problem that has to be fully addressed. Its impact on the society is so massive that legislation is constantly being updated to ensure that this social ill finds sustainable resolution.

Substance Abuse - Effects on Society
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Chy King, M.Ed. is the owner of The Sober Sources Network and has extended her network on alcoholism and addiction recovery for both adults and teens to incorporate over 20 different websites targeting alcoholism and addiction in hopes of helping those seeking their own solutions. You may view one of the live forums at The Sober Village to see recovery in action!

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Motivation Theory

The word motivation is coined from the Latin word "movere", which means to move. Motivation is defined as an internal drive that activates behavior and gives it direction. The term motivation theory is concerned with the processes that describe why and how human behavior is activated and directed. It is regarded as one of the most important areas of study in the field of organizational behavior. There are two different categories of motivation theories such as content theories, and process theories. Even though there are different motivation theories, none of them are universally accepted.

Also known as need theory, the content theory of motivation mainly focuses on the internal factors that energize and direct human behavior. Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Alderfer's ERG theory, Herzeberg's motivator-hygiene theory (Herzeberg's dual factors theory), and McClelland's learned needs or three-needs theory are some of the major content theories.

Of the different types of content theories, the most famous content theory is Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Maslow introduced five levels of basic needs through his theory. Basic needs are categorized as physiological needs, safety and security needs, needs of love, needs for self esteem and needs for self-actualization.

Motivation Theory

Just like Maslow's hierarchy of needs, ERG theory explains existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Through dual factors theory, Herzeberg describes certain factors in the workplace which result in job satisfaction. McClelland's learned needs or three-needs theory uses a projective technique called the Thematic Aptitude Test (TAT) so as to evaluate people based on three needs: power, achievement, and affiliation. People with high need of power take action in a way that influences the other's behavior.

Another type of motivation theory is process theory. Process theories of motivation provide an opportunity to understand thought processes that influence behavior. The major process theories of motivation include Adams' equity theory, Vroom's expectancy theory, goal-setting theory, and reinforcement theory. Expectancy, instrumentality, and valence are the key concepts explained in the expectancy theory. Goal setting theory suggests that the individuals are motivated to reach set goals. It also requires that the set goals should be specific. Reinforcement theory is concerned with controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences.

Motivation Theory
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Poverty Alleviation: An Aim Of Islamic Economics

Poverty is treated as WMD (weapon of mass destruction) of modern world. Eradication of it bears very importance. The economic systems like capitalism and communism have presented number of instruments for the alleviation of the poverty from the world. But, these extreme ideologies failed to satisfy the need of the people. Private ownership of property, laissez-faire policy of capitalism and class war, dialectical materialism, state ownership of property of communism didn't touch the real cause of poverty. This situation necessitates seeking the possibilities of Islamic economics in alleviating poverty. The aim of poverty alleviation can be attained, in an Islamic Economic system through reducing the inequality. It never means attaining equality but equity and justice in the income and wealth distribution. Islam eliminates the absolute inequality which arises from unequal distribution of income, but relative inequality emerges from equitable distribution of income and wealth.

First part of this article has given a small introduction to both conventional economics and Islamic economics. Then it provides a picture of poverty of current world and Islamic perspective of poverty. Then Islamic economics instruments to alleviate poverty such as zakat, sadaqa, qard hasan, ganima, khums, fay, jizya, mudaraba, musharaka, prohibition of interest, abolition of extravaganza, prohibition of speculation and hoarding have been mentioned in briefly. Influence of Islamic economic instruments on marginal propensity to consume, multiplier, price investment and production have been dealt with.

The books and articles I referred for this article are Dr. Dr.Sabahuddin Azmi's Islamic Economics, S. M. Hasanuzzaman's Economic function of an Islamic state (The early experience), Towards understanding the economic system of Islam written by Dr.P Ibrahim and Introduction to the economic system by Moulavi.M.V.Saleem.

Poverty Alleviation: An Aim Of Islamic Economics

Introduction

Nobody can undermine the importance of economics which is a social science that studies the production, distribution, trade and consumption of goods and services. This very importance of economics resulted in emergence of different economic systems in the world and all of those economic systems claim that they will fetch economic welfare. Those dominating and prominent economic system's failure to accomplish economic justice, prosperity, the eradiation of the inequality and poverty make necessary an alternative economic system which can successfully make a starvation free and poverty free world.

Definition of Economics

Social scientists have developed various definitions of economics. Lionel Robinson's scarcity definition of economics is most accepted amongst them. According to Robinson "economics is a science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses" This definition is based on two points which are scarcity of resources and the never ending needs. But in reality former is a myth. The survey conducted by UNO shows that are enough resources for 20000 million people on earth we have only 6000 million people on earth residing now. Latter point 'never ending needs' is also incorrect as the desire and greed of the man is unlimited but the need is countable and controllable.

Definition of Islamic Economics

As a system of life Islam has not left any area of human life without guidance. Whether it is spiritual, individual, social, economical or political Islam gives clear cut guidelines. By considering the economic guidelines of Islamic sources, Islamic economists have developed plethora of definitions. Derivation of each definition of Islamic economics is based on guidance given in the basic sources of Islamic shariah which are Quran and hadith.

According to Yusuf Ibrahim, professor of Islamic economics, Qatar University "Islamic economics is a science studying the guidance of the human behavior towards the use of resources to satisfy the needs". This definition is based upon the following facts.

1. The resources are enough for satisfying the needs.

2. But the resources should be protected from the waste, and improper use.

3. The human behavior towards the resources should be controlled by divine injunctions.

4. Only legal needs, needs that build life on the earth, should be satisfied.

5. Illegal needs (desires), which destroy life on earth, should not be satisfied; they are never ending and never satisfied.

Islamic economic system, a normative economic system, has been built upon certain fundamental Islamic philosophies. According to Quranic teachings real and absolute ownership of the wealth belongs to the creator of the same, Almighty God. Quran says "To Allah belongs to everything in the sky and on the earth" (2:284).Role of the man is considered as trustee who is to manage the trust, i.e. wealth according to the directives of the real owner; God. Quran clearly states "And spend of that where of hath made you trustees" (57:7). So man has been granted

conditioned and limited ownership.

Another Islamic philosophy is universal brotherhood and equality of men as their creator is one and parents are same. Hence distinction based on color, caste, creed, races do not suffer at any cost. This concept induces the people for cooperation and participation in their all efforts instead of cheating, exploiting and making fraud each other. Another aspect of Islamic philosophy is the faith in the Day of Judgment after death. In the life after death man is accountable for his deeds on earth. The implication of this faith is that economic choices one makes in world are to be judged according to the norms Allah has laid down.

These are the revolutionary points which differentiate Islamic economics from the liberal, capitalistic, imperialistic, mainstream, usurious economic system and communist, class war, state dictatorship economic system. Islam constructs a just world on the spirit of everlasting divine concepts.
Poverty

Evil of any economy is poverty. The presence of begging hands in an economy pulls that economy into decades back. Poverty midst plenty is the challenge faced in the modern world. Impact of the poverty cannot confine into starvation only, but poor people, apart from starvation, suffering limited income which leads to inaccessibility of good education it disables them for challenging careers which requires number of years long education. Absence of nutritious food results in more child morality among deprived sections. Since limited access for information and knowledge those are prevented from market and opportunities.

Every country and international organizations like World Trade Organization, World Bank and Asian Development Bank hard work to construct the countries and world on the foots of self sufficiency respectively. Mission of the World Bank is described as global poverty reduction and improvement of living standards. General Council of UN has declared October 17 as International day for the eradication of poverty. It shows how seriously they took poverty as a problem

But, it is wondering that out of 6.1 billion world population more than 1 billion are finding their livelihood in less than per day and almost 3 billion on less than per day. You might be provoked that 74% of total income of world is shared by the 20% of the elite class of the world. It is heartening you that there are countries whose national income is less 0 and morality of below five years age children is about 26%.It is worrying that 110 million primary school age children are out of school and 60 percent of them are girls.
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Poverty and Islamic Economics

Below Poverty Line (BPL) fixes in Islamic economics system on the basis of ownership of nisab, which limit makes one eligible for the payment of zakat Whosoever wealth on or over the nisab is responsible for the payment of zakat. Those wealth is below nisab are zakat recipients and they are treated as poor. Hence, in Islamic economics, the size of deprived come under BPL will be large. Starvation and inaccessibility of food, shelter, cloths and education could not suffer in an Islamic economy which aims human falah, i.e. human welfare. It does not support any economic instrument that leads to the deprivation of the man. Since poverty emerges in an economy as a result of various causes so wiping out of these causes is primarily important.

Limited income, unequal distribution of income and wealth, misdistribution of resources, regional disparities, unemployment, social injustice, and decreased investments ...etc are some of the obstacles in the way of attainment of self-sufficiency and welfare. Islam considers the fulfillment of basic needs of every member of society is economic, moral as well as religious obligation of the ruler. List of the basic goods extends from traditional food, clothing and shelter to seasonal clothing, personal attendant to disabled person, and expenditure on marriage of poor and expenditure on entire family of poor, which are intensified by scholars from time to time and likely to extend the list time to time for the welfare of the citizen. Islamic economic system introduces a bunch of divinely guided instruments which bring to an end of poverty and build
poverty less world.

Islamic Economic Instruments to eliminate poverty

It is advised to Muslim citizens in an Islamic county, as the part of believe, to practice certain things in their life, some of them are compulsory nature and the rest are voluntary nature. The practice of these will have vast economic implications apart from the reward of God. Non Muslim citizens also have to make certain compulsory payments, which have economic impacts, as the part of their citizenship in the Islamic country. Compulsory duties and agreements of citizens are governed by the Islamic country and violation of any part would not suffer Islamic state. In addition to these functions there are other things the Islamic state has to carry out similar to any nation does for the welfare of citizens. Both positive and negative measures have recommended by Islam for wiping out the reason of poverty.

Positive Measures

There are numerous Islamic orders and injunction to perform certain things which have immense influence on economies justice, prosperity and growth. Important divine injunctions amongst them and their influence upon the economy are briefed below.

Zakat

Zakat is the yearly obligation of wealthy Muslims to poor and it is the share of have-nots in the property and wealth of the rich. Quran commends "establish worship and pay the poor his due (zakat) and obey the messenger". Technically we can call it as spiritual tax. It is imposed on those forms of wealth which have the capacity to grow in value or otherwise produce further, is having the custody of whole year and have exceed a certain minimum value called 'nisab'. Quran has stated the eight specific heads for the distribution of zakat.
Due to the divine spirit for the performance of zakat, chances for evasion are less. The imposition of zakat on idle wealth urges the owners for the productive and profitable employment of idle wealth which increases the wealth of economy and again the share of zakat.

Donations

Sadaqa is the one of the voluntary economic instrument. No limit and eligibility criteria for performing contributions to needy. It can be divert, apart from the eight heads mentioned for the distribution of zakat, to any needy. and it will strengthen what economic implications emerged by zakat.

Qard hasan

It is an arrangement of interest free loans for unproductive purposes or for the needy to meet the expenses like hospital expenses, home expenses and education expenses etc which are do not make any earnings. So it is not able to charge any material benefit, like profit share, from qurd hasan. These are provided as the part of kindness to human beings. In an Islamic economy individuals and institutions like Islamic banks will offer this type of loans expecting the reward of Allah. Availability of qard hasan reduces the financial burdens like interest, of deprived.

Profit and loss sharing

Islam formulates profit and loss sharing as the tool of trade contracts instesd of interest. The motivation behind it is the cooperation amongst the people. In profit sharing there are different types of financing such as mudaraba (profit and loss sharing) and musharaka (participation) ...etc
Mudaraba is the agreement between both capital owner and entrepreneur to share the profit arises from the business and in case of loss capital owner's capital reduces and entrepreneur's time and effort loose. Musharaka is the agreement to share profit and loss where all contributors participate in management of business. Both mudaraba and musharaka help the people, who have inadequacy of capital, to engage in business, production and contribute their share into the welfare nation and earn for their own.

Ganima (war booty), Khums (one fifth) and Fay

Ganima is the property Muslims seize from the enemy. Four fifth of the ganima is divided among the fighting army and one fifth (khums) of the entire ganima move to state fund, which is earmarked for the special beneficiaries mentioned in Quran. Fay is the property receives from the enemy without actual fighting. This source of state revenue is generalized for the common good of the entire population and public welfare.

Kharaj (Land- Tax)

Land-Tax, a source of revenue of state, is the levy imposed on land produce. This is actually the rent for the use of value of agricultural land. The rate of kharaj and method of collection can be declared by state from time to time as there is no direction of Quran and tradition of prophet in this regard.

Jizya (Poll tax)

Jizya (poll-tax) imposed on the non-Muslim citizens of Islamic country for securing their wealth, property and lives from damage. It helps them to contribute their skill, talent, health, wealth and property for the prosperity of the country

Waqf (Endowment)

Waqf (endowment) is regular source of revenue which is earmarked and dedicated fund of Muslim for supporting charitable and welfare activities
State ownership on uncultivated land:
Any economic instrument that hinders productivity is harmful to economies prosperous. According to Islamic shariah, if a land is remained uncultivated three consecutive years lead to moving of ownership of that land from current owner to other who is ready for cultivate the land and produce. Prophet (pbuh) said "The original rights of ownership in land are God's and the prophets and then yours afterwards. But he who revives any dead land acquires the right of ownership to it". There is an another institution, iqta, boost the circulation and tax revenue of the state by transferring the uncultivated/dead land to someone in return for ushr or khraj.

Combined ownership of natural resources:

Individual ownership of natural resources like fire, water, pasture and salt are restricted by the Islamic shariah. People have combined ownership in these natural resources which should be accessible to anyone. This rule allow anyone to use the benefit derives from the natural goods and ensure that nobody is away from the natural goods which are easy to get to without any hard work.. List of natural goods, in addition to mentioned goods, can be extended into more goods in time to time. Prophet (pbuh) said "people are joint owners in water, pasture and fire".
There are other sources of revenues like property of deceased with no legal heir, lost and found with no claimants and additional taxations.

Negative Measures

There are some prohibitions of God which has influence on the economies prosperity and welfare of every men of country.
Prohibition of interest
Interest, whatever form, has been contemned by Allah and His messenger. Quran says "Allah has permitted trade and hath prohibited riba" (interest). Islam doesn't support interest but profit and loss sharing. Every financial transactions of Islamic economy should be free of Interest. But absence of interest in an Islamic economy doesn't create any hindrance to prosperity but flourish the prosperity.

Prohibition of speculative instruments

Instruments which don't have any advantage to real economy such as futures and option are not permitted in Islamic economy. Stock market instruments like day trading, marginal trading are prohibited, either. Absence of these instruments in the economy reduces speculation which is harm to the entire economy.
Implications

The implementation of shariah guidelines we discussed above in an economy lead to number of positive fruits which make the state free from every form of poverty.
Increased redistribution of income and wealth will result in, when the people perform the religious obligations like zakat, donation, waqf, inheritances, fithr zakat and kaffarath etc... It leads to flow of wealth and money from rich to poor. Thus the concentration and accumulation of wealth in a few hands come down. Poor and needy spend approximately eighty percent of their earnings to fulfill their basic needs. Economically Marginal Propensity to Consume (MPC) of the poor is larger than middle and high class. A large portion of whatever comes into handy of poor will flow to economy for consumption of basic goods; it lead to more demand for primary goods and then it result in the increased production of basic goods. It is difficult to restrict luxurious consumption and production completely by law and force. But the increased rate of redistribution of wealth and income increase the demand for basic goods and decrease the demand for luxurious goods. Automatically it reduces the utilization of resources for the production of luxuries. Consequently, natural resources use for the production of basic goods and for the benefit of public welfare
This increased redistribution of wealth to poor enables them to get the accessibility of good education and nutritious food. Increased knowledge and skills help the poor to get good jobs and earn. This raises the entire poor family and dependence to heights. In turn, increase of income more than a certain limit make them capable for performing zakat and other voluntary donations for the sake of the benefit of have-nots. Rise in the redistribution help to reduce the gap between haves and have-nots and bring economic justice to all citizens.

Increased MPC of poor as the redistribution of income results in more multiplier effect in economy that fuels more income to the overall income of economy that help the poor section of people to raise their per capita income and living standards.

According to Professor Keynes, investment depends on two variables which are current rare of interest and the marginal efficiency of capital or expected profit rate. Investment would take place only if the expected rate of profit exceeds of interest. Due to the absence of interest, in an Islamic economy, only the size of expected rate of profit of profit will be the determinant of investment.

Speculative motive of money and liquidity theory of money will have no place in an interest free economy which reduces investment. But the presence of only expected rate of profit will result in investments, even in low rate of expected rate of profit to increase their principle amount and to avoid the deterioration of principal through zakat. The increased investment raises the production, employment, wages and overall national income of economy. It flows wealth to poor and raises their economic status.

Fisher's quantity theory which states that quantity of money affects the price and value of money. It means that increase in the supply of money will proportionately increase the price in economy but the output will not increase. But in the case of Islamic economy money should not be supplied without making increase in the output. The central bank and commercial banks of Islamic state increase the money supply through making investment contracts on the basis of profit and loss sharing. So every flow of money into economy results in output growth without making proportionate hike in price. It is helpful to the poor to get need things at reasonable price

Conclusion

Way of eliminating poverty in Islamic economy is simple. Faith in the oneness of God (tawheed) motivates to the performance of zakat and profit and loss sharing and avoiding interest and extravaganza. Increased redistribution and productivity are the outcome of these instruments which helps finally to attain alleviation of poverty.
*-*-*-*-THE END*-*-*-*

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Poverty Alleviation: An Aim Of Islamic Economics
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How to Attract More Customers to Increase Business Revenue and Profits

Many companies today seemed to have forgotten the reason for going into business: to provide products and services to satisfy the needs and wants of the customers. In fact, the customers are kings and queens. Unless you know how to attract and keep satisfied customers who think they are getting their money's worth, then your business is lost.

Attending to customers' needs is a business strategy that is synonymous to revenue and profit, because good service to customers means success. Without the customers there would be no sales, and no income. As the sign in a store shop says, customers are perishable. This means it is easy to lose a customer and to give him to the competition.

The following are the three pointers to attract and keep the customers.

How to Attract More Customers to Increase Business Revenue and Profits

1. Serve your customers well. Poor quality service is always the cause why buyers and potential customers turn away from patronizing your business. It is only the quality of service that can give you an edge over your competitors. Customers always consider service, attention and support than product quality. So, respond to your customers' needs as soon as they arise.

2. Always offer quality products and services to your customers. The reason why customers buy from you and not from your competitors is because they believe that your products have quality and provide tangible value and benefits to meet their needs. Do not sacrifice quality over quantity. Also, do not exchange short term gain to long term profitability.

3. Keep the customers first. Develop good relationships with the customers, always keeping in mind their needs and how you can satisfy those needs. Have personalized contacts, open feedback mechanisms and attend promptly to their complaints and suggestions. Satisfied customers can become your captured market, and in the face of competition, their loyalty can spell the difference between profit and losses for your business.

A successful strategy is one that treats the customers as your business' reason for existence. This strategy can be implemented by using the tactic of always providing the customers with products and services that are responsive to their needs and expectations, coupled with fast, personalized and efficient service.

In the last analysis, good customers' service will always result to a lasting relationship, which translates to your business survival, growth and profitability.

How to Attract More Customers to Increase Business Revenue and Profits
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Eli A. Gatanela is a practising lawyer, management consultant and licensed real estate broker based in Bacolod City, Philippines. Mr. Gatanela has been involved in business and management consulting for the past twenty years, and in the private practice of law, specializing in commercial law for the last 8 years. He was formerly professor of Economics and Business Management and holds Economics, MBA and Law degrees from the University of St. La Salle, one of the leading universities in the Philippines belonging to the De La Salle Brothers of the Christian Schools worldwide. Mr. Gatanela heads his law and consulting firm Gatanela & Associates based in Bacolod City, Philippines. His website is: http://businessphereconsulting.com

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What Effects Did The Terrorist Attacks Of 9/11 Have On US Policy Towards The Caribbean?

The terrorist attacks of 2001 produced several marked alterations in the global foreign policy of the world's remaining superpower. The United States narrowed its definition of national security to focus predominantly on anti-terrorism, assessing most other policy priorities in terms of their perceived contribution to that overriding goal. The United States has also shown a new willingness to take the initiative in world affairs, sometimes leading to a unilateralism that irks some other nations. The application of these worldwide policies in sub-regions relatively divorced from major terrorist incidents such as the Caribbean can be unbending and severe.

As a matter of fact, the impact of 9/11 on the Caribbean has been diverse in many ways. In effect, one multi-faceted and crucial event exerted a complex impact upon a social, economic and political process that has become deeply interwoven into the score of nations surrounding the Caribbean basin. The attacks on 9/11 has reshaped U.S. policy towards the region in a number of areas, from trade to migration, travel restrictions, tourism, financial aid, military assistance, drug interdiction and foreign policy in terms of intervention in areas of volatility.

While the focus of this paper is on the effects of 9/11 on the formulation of U.S. policy towards the Caribbean and the resulting consequence, we must take a look at the reshaping of U.S. policy globally, namely that:

What Effects Did The Terrorist Attacks Of 9/11 Have On US Policy Towards The Caribbean?

o Anti terrorism has replaced anti communism as the 21st century's all-purpose rationale for providing U.S. military aid, weapons and training to foreign militaries;

o U.S. security assistance is on the rise since 9/11, flowing to an ever widening pool of states; and

o Several key restrictions on arms sales and military aid have been waived or dismissed to make way for the new anti terrorism aid.

Some experts in international relations have now contemplated that this new shift in foreign policy by the United States has led to the rise of key problems, particularly:

o Other geo-strategic policies that would have faced harsh criticism in the pre- 9/11 world - such as counter insurgency aid or protecting U.S. access to oil sources are now being approved in the name of counter terrorism;

o Anti terrorism is triumphing all other foreign policy concerns, opening the way for new relations with repressive regimes; and

o U.S. aid, arms and training related to counter terrorism may destabilize tense regions.

In light of the convergence of U.S. foreign policy over the years from the Monroe to Truman Doctrines, the start of the Cold War, U.S. and the Third World, Reagan's rearmament and the fall of Communism, an examination of this latest shift upon the states of the Caribbean is required in order to establish a framework by which these small satellite countries must now engage the world's remaining established superpower.

In terms of trade, the Caribbean has suffered at the hands of stalled talks in of the Free Trade Area of the Americas. Originally slated to achieve significant progress in 2005 and implementation by 2008, the FTAA would have been a major forum by which the Caribbean states could have gained access to hemispheric markets. Since 9/11, and given the dispute between Brazil and the United States over subsidies in agriculture among other issues, we have witnessed a proliferation of trade talks with the United States engaging more frequently in regional and bilateral discussions rather than at the multi-national level [F.T.A.A.].

At the Third Meeting of Foreign Ministers of the Caribbean and the then Secretary of State of the United States Colin Powell, held on February 7 2002 in Nassau, Bahamas, the Foreign Ministers of the Caribbean Community [CARICOM] and the Dominican Republic, placed trade and investment issues firmly at the top of the agenda. They reminded the United States of the significant advantage it has been enjoying in its balance of trade with the Caribbean since the establishment of the Caribbean Basin Initiative in 1983. The events of 9/11 and their ripple effects on Caribbean economics also found their place on the agenda. . The impact on Caribbean tourism and travel industry and the diversion of scarce resources from development priorities to new security demands were of particular concern.

The United States, pursuant to Article IX: 3 of the Marrakesh Agreement establishing the World Trade Organization on February 24 2005 requested an extension of the existing waiver of the provisions of the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act of 1983 and the amendments covered under the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Expansion Act of 1990. This expansion is valid up to September 30, 2008. This was standard procedure and reflects to a certain degree, the United States' ambivalence towards creating a more vigorous policy for the Caribbean post 9/11. This is a particularly prudent observation given the expectations of a more dynamic relationship between the two areas following the Caribbean/United States Summit - "Partnership for Prosperity and Security in the Caribbean" on May 10, 1997 in Bridgetown, Barbados.

As a matter of fact, the United States began placing more emphasis in terms of trade negotiations with Central American nations as signaled by the signing of the Central American Free Trade Agreement on May 28, 2004. Although U.S. exports to the Caribbean increased from 8.12 million in 2001 to 9.35 million in 2002, a 21.07% upward movement, it was not due to a change in U.S. policy towards the Caribbean, but to the inevitable advantages to the United States because of the imposition of structural adjustment and trade liberalization policies by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Despite the current U.S. administration's attention elsewhere, they have managed to maintain the contribution of a healthy level of development aid to the region. In FY 2005, development aid to the Caribbean from the United States was 0 million.

With respect to travel and tourism in the Caribbean, the events of 9/11 had a near devastating effect on this industry. While the stakeholders, particularly the airlines and hotels have shown some resilience in responding to the fallout from these attacks, the new travel restrictions on American citizens threaten to temper the expected growth of this, a very capricious industry. The U.S. Administration made it mandatory on January 8, 2007 for all Americans traveling to the Caribbean to do so with the use of a passport. Many analysts, given the fact that only a quarter of Americans possess a passport, predict that this will have an adverse effect on travel to the region. The Bush administration's introduction of the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative, fully implemented by June 1, 2009, will have a profound effect on how travel is conducted by Americans within the Caribbean reason being many of whom were accustomed to traveling with a birth certificate or driver's license.

The administration argues that the adjustments will be minimal and that the transition will be smoother than anticipated. We must take cognizance that tourism plays a vital role in the economy of the Caribbean. The World Travel and Tourism Council estimated that tourism in 2005 accounted for 4.5% or U.S. .7 billion of the regional GDP and that this figure is estimated to grow to approximately 5.2% or U.S. .4 billion by 2014. Clearly, a shift in American policy will and must have a profound impact based upon the sizeable amount of visitors to the region by Americans. It should be noted here that since 9/11, although tourism in the Caribbean has been growing, the rate of growth has been on the decline, i.e. 7.1% in 2003, 6.9% in 2004 and 3.5% in 2005.

In terms of regional security, some experts have accused the United States of turning its back on the Caribbean since 9/11. In 2003, the majority of Caribbean states failed to support the Bush Administration's call for war with Iraq. This, together with Washington's concentration on the War on Terror has left the region without the full support of the various agencies of the U.S. government. Their focus has shifted primarily to Homeland Security and the War on Terror. This perceived lack of attention on the Caribbean has left many Heads of Government uneasy, especially with its own battle against crime, namely the drug trade.

The U.S. support for the war on drugs within the region has remained stagnant since 9/11. More emphasis is now being placed on security at ports of call, especially those close to the U.S. mainland like the Bahamas. As a matter of fact, the United States has mandated the Bahamian Government to install more modern equipment at its port in Freeport as an added security measure to check cargo before entering Miami in particular. Attention has also shifted to the transportation of energy based material into the United States as fears exist within intelligence circles that a next attack on the United States might come via this method.

For the years 2001 to 2003, United States military and economic assistance to Bahamas, Belize, the Eastern Caribbean, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago was estimated at U.S. .56 million. Allocation to the same countries for the period 2004 to 2006 was estimated at .59 million, a decrease of approximately U.S. .7 million. Add this to the fact that military assistance was temporarily withdrawn by the United States to Barbados, St. Vincent and the Grenadines and Trinidad and Tobago since these countries did not agree to shield U.S. soldiers from prosecution under the International Criminal Court and one would be at ease to pontificate a somewhat less than enthusiastic approach on the part of the American government in dealing with security issues within the region. As a footnote, it should be noted that the vast majority of military assistance to Latin America and the Caribbean post 9/11 went to the Colombian anti-kidnapping programme.

Although the United States was the leading power in restoring President Jean Bertrand Aristide [Haiti] in 1994 and in 2001 and the fact that some experts contend that they had a hand in his removal in 2004, the United States since 9/11 has adopted a somewhat reduced role for itself in Haiti, with the Canadians and the French taking the lead in the establishment of a United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti [MINUSTAH] in June 2004. The U.S. has engaged in a policy of retreat in Haiti, namely because the state posses no terrorist threat to the United States and in the fact that it lacks sources of energy, particularly oil and natural gas. This is a far cry from U.S. policy prior 9/11 especially when one takes into account the invasion of Grenada in 1983 and the Bay of Pigs [Cuba] in 1961.

The aftermath of 9/11 has added some new tensions to U.S. political relations with major Caribbean states, while somewhat exacerbating existing strains. The longstanding overall pattern of the United States' preponderant political influence in the region [with the exception of Cuba] has not been altered. Instead, the limited frictions that form part of that asymmetry in power have been augmented somewhat. Perhaps paradoxically, though Cuba is the United States' major adversary, Havana has developed the region's most institutionalized migration relations with the Washington. A series of formal agreements initiated in 1984 and modified most recently in 1995, have committed the U.S. to issue at least 20 000 immigrant visas per year to Cuba citizens and to return unauthorized migrants to Cuba who have been intercepted at sea.

Since 9/11, migration relations between Jamaica and the U.S. have been placed under stress by reductions in visa issuance and by Jamaican concerns that their nation's chosen course in other realms of foreign policy may have proved costly in the field of migration. Despite assurances from the U.S. Ambassador in Jamaica shortly after 9/11 that "we do not anticipate less visas being offered, over the following twelve months, 37% fewer visitors' visas were distributed though processing of immigrant visas increased slightly.

The issue of deporting Caribbean nations from the United States has gained momentum since 9/11. It has had a negative impact on receiving countries as it has been directly co-related to a sharp rise in crime throughout the region.

A tendency towards multilateral migration negotiations in the Caribbean has also lost momentum, largely due to U.S. coolness towards it. Beginning in the late 1990's, when Caribbean states sought to offset or even reverse restricting U.S. measures adopted in 1996, states in the region sometimes acted together to lobby the United States more often than in previous years. The prospect of participating in the Mexico initiative [2001] might have spurred this trend. What seems clear is that the U.S. has now little enthusiasm for multilateral diplomacy with the Caribbean.

What Effects Did The Terrorist Attacks Of 9/11 Have On US Policy Towards The Caribbean?
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Benefits From Globalization

Facts

The things that come to many minds when globalization is mentioned are loss of United States' jobs, NAFTA, CAFTA, APEC, outsourcing, and low-wages. The perception to most people is that if outsourcing is bad, then globalization must be bad. The fact is that globalization is good for the United States of America and the market economy. It promotes prosperity for participating countries. What needs to be done is to educate people on the diversity and multiculturalism in the work place, and the sensitivity in the culture of the participating countries. Listed below are the benefits of Globalization and international trade:

(1) Opportunity cost

Benefits From Globalization

(2) Comparative advantage

(3) Cheaper to buy than to produce

(4) The terms of trade

(5) Balance trade

(6) Changes in production and consumption

Role of Trade

The United States represents a major exporter of raw materials and agricultural products, and imports a large volume of services. Market is efficient when trading is concentrated on specialization. By concentration, cost is minimized, profit is maximized, production is increased, and efficiency is maximized. Specialization is achieved when participating countries shift their scarce resources toward producing goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage over other countries, and in turn, increase the consumption of all goods.

To workers, this may not make sense if they are losing their jobs, but organizations are in business to make money, and they understand what it takes and how long it takes to break-even and to start making profits. Businesses do not intentionally try to hurt workers by laying them off. They rather keep the jobs in the United States, and by keeping it here, they will save themselves the hassle of moving and talking to people with different languages and accents all over the world. But organizations operate their businesses like puzzles, and for each puzzle, it requires a lot of the pieces to be put together in order to complete a puzzle. Going global is what it might take for most organizations to compete in order to control costs and produce at an efficient capacity.

Only winners are created in global trading, because selling a product creates an increase in the demand for that product because net demand by foreigners is added to domestic demand. Therefore, with the increase in demand, the price will rise. On the other hand, buying a product will create an increase in the supply of the product because net foreign supply is added to domestic supply. Hence, with the increase in supply, the price falls. No one loses; it is all a win-win situation for all the participating countries.

Market economy is dynamic due to continuous research and development, and the change in technology, and as such individuals will need to keep up with the movement and change by continuously attend seminars and undergo retraining. The old style of static market is over.
The argument has been made concerning exploitation of the poorer people in the developing countries. It also went further to compare their wages to slave wages. The fact is, whenever the people of these developing countries have opportunity to obtain jobs and earn more than they originally earn, it is improvement. Most parents in these countries are illiterate and do not know the importance of education, and because of that they send their children to work at these production plants. They need to be educated on the importance of education in order to begin sending their children to school rather than to the production plants.

For more information on globalization and international trade email to: consulting@iba-pec.com

Benefits From Globalization
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Dr. Sidney Okolo is a professor, consultant, strategist, and Africa expert. He is affiliated to several universities, the Managing Director of International Business Associates, a management consulting firm, and also the President of Virtual Classrooms Institute, an online education solution.

Among other things, he engages in all aspects of learning, knowledge, organization and human change. His focus is on leadership, management, entrepreneurship, profit engineering, human potential, excellence, achievement, business strategy, research and development. Product management, change management, conflict management, athlete management, marketing, business development and operations. He works with clients to adapt to change due to change in factors of production, technology, goods and services. He engages clients in training, retraining, development, skills enhancement, association, behavior modification, ways of thinking, and attitude adjustment. In addition to his work in the United States, his focus is also on developing countries in the continent of Africa, their leadership, culture, economic and market structure, community planning and development, and he coined the phrase; "AFRICAN PIES", which stands for: poverty, instability, ethnicity, and sectarianism in Africa.

http://www.iba-pec.com

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The Difference Between Debt And Equity Financing

There are two main types of financing for a business, debt or equity financing. Debt financing tends to be the type of financing you receive from a traditional bank loan and equity financing tends to be financing you receive from venture capital into your business from outside investors. The benefit of debt financing is that it is finite and you will pay down the debt over time to a zero sum balance without any further obligation to the lender. The down stroke to debt financing is that traditional lenders will take a hard look at your business including how long it has been in existence, income from operation, expenses and will require hard assets for collateral for the loan. Additionally, lenders will most certainly want you (and any other principals of the organization) to personally guarantee repayments of the loan. Another disadvantage of debt financing is that your organization will be burdened with some other type of regular payment (usually a monthly payment) depending on the terms and conditions of the financing and this can absorb critical cash flow, especially with small business.

The benefit of equity financing or venture capital is that you will be receiving money in exchange for equity in your business in the form of stock or some other form of equity like percentage of income or gross/net sales. A primary benefit of this type of financing is that typically there is no monthly payment requirement to investors. Instead, you are giving up ownership interest, most often, permanently.

Traditional lenders, banks for example, will look at your business much differently than venture capitalist. Bankers want a zero-risk or near-zero risk position when they provide financing and will rely almost completely on the operating economics of the business with little regard for "potential future growth". They want to see strong cash flow backed up by hard assets before they do a deal--the ingredients that most small business lack or they wouldn't be seeking financing, right? Venture capitalist, on the other hand, tend to consider the management team and the potential future growth of the business more heavily than actual operating numbers, especially for small business with large potential but few sales and little or no operating history. Although these two lender types vary in their approach to analyzing a business for funding, you can be sure that careful scrutiny of you business will be conducted...

The Difference Between Debt And Equity Financing

Besides the actual operating economics and pro forma analysis, both types of lenders will look closely at two particular documents: 1. Your business plan. 2. Your bank or loan request package. These two documents, if assembled correctly, can make the difference between success and failure when dealing with either lender type.

There are plenty of free SBA related materials that tell you how to create blue-chip, boiler plate business plans but they tend to be written for perfect businesses and not the average Joe who is less than picture perfect. If you are seeking some type of financing for your business I strongly suggest that you visit our site and check out our business e-books. We have several that cover a variety of topics and there are specifically two that will be a real treasure for you to own. One is called Power Planning (a powerful report on writing a wide variety of business plans) and How To Raise Money For You Business (teaches you how to assemble professional loan requests packages). They are priced at each and can be worth millions in the hands of the right person. I am not trying to hype product, I am simply giving you a heads up.

The secrets to getting financing from either type of lender is a closely held secret by financial and business brokers for a number of reasons. Chief among them is it forces people like you to do business with them and they earn commissions. The SBA materials, while good, do not have the street savvy to get the job done in most cases. The proof is in the pudding--what has the SBA ever done for you? The SBA is just another government back bureaucratic nightmare for most. We also have some links for venture capital firms in our business links area located on our site on the Smart Link Zone page--it's all-free.

Give it some thought.... Your future may depend on it.

To your success! Copyright © 2006 James W. Hart, IV All Rights reserved

The Difference Between Debt And Equity Financing
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Food Prices During the Great Depression

Food prices of the great depression in the 30s, were somewhat of a paradox, when you look back and consider how everything was so cheap, and, yet, at the same time, way too expensive for many people living through those times.

Food prices weren't so much a problem for those who were employed during the great depression, as they could afford the daily essentials, and, perhaps, some extras, like a movie or ice cream; but, for the unfortunate ones who were unemployed, even the every-day, basic necessities were totally out of reach.

Actually, it wasn't that the food prices were high, but it was the lack of, or absence of money that kept most things people not only desired, but needed, at arms length, or on the other side of the shop's glass window.

Food Prices During the Great Depression

Imagine not being able to run to the store and grab your desired food items, clothing, and, if you needed it, medicine; and then not being able to afford the mortgage or rent, or the electricity or gas for cooking. Could you go without?

Who, in our prior affluent day-and-age, could deal with that kind of inconvenience, when we're used to flipping the light switch on in the morning, and turning on the automatic coffee machine to dilute some of those twelve-dollar-a-pound grounds we bought from the specialty coffee beanery-after already enjoying a six-dollar mocha grande with friends.

No such thing for families during the great depression, under their poor circumstances. Imagine buying just a plain (if you can get one today) cup of coffee with cream and sugar, for five cents; a two-egg-bacon-and-toast-with-a-piece-of-pie-and-a-cup-of-coffee breakfast, for 25 cents; or a candy bar for a dime.

It doesn't sound like a lot, except those who were employed might only have been earning or a-day, but when you don't have those few small coins, food prices of the great depression seemed pretty high! For those who had money, life was, undoubtedly, more comfortable even considering the times, but for those who had to scrimp and scrape to put food on the table, their days were filled with worry and strife.

Many mothers often went without food, so their children had more to eat. She didn't spend her pennies foolishly, if she had them, but used them for the things that were vital to her family's survival. She'd account for every cent.

With money during the great depression being so scarce, families frequently ran out of the little bit they may have acquired, from some type of labor, or, perhaps, from hocking something of sentimental value.

And, to make things worse, families lives were often compromised, or drasitically challenged, as the men would set out for other parts of the country seeking employment. Some men, never returned, but, instead, turned to illegal activities in hopes of gain, or to alcohol, only making their own, and their family's problems worse. Some even chose suicide.

At any rate, most people had nowhere to turn, since borrowing from their neighbors or relatives would cause them further problems. Local stores might have extended credit to certain people, but they were rarely let off the hook to pay, as some people were still paying off bills that were outstanding, long after the war, which followed The Great Depression, ended.

Money-or, the lack of it-was the main thing that dominated millions of lives for many years during the earlier part of this century. And, it's no different today. Money, for many people, in one way or the other, still rules.

Tough times are coming again for those who don't think so, as many people world wide, are already experiencing our plummeting economy. I sure notice the presently rising food prices (or, more realistically, decreasing dollar value), as it costs way more for a half-empty grocery bag today, than it did not so long ago.

But, hey! There is hope, and for those who are informed, there's no need to be surprised and led to despair by these coming hard times. We can take precaution, and plan and prepare for our now, and our future lifestyle management, by getting ahead of the game.

We can learn more about food prices of the great depression, and valuable ways on how we can prepare ourselves and our families, for what likely will, in some form or other, depending on our circumstances, be much like, or worse than, The Great Depression of the 30s.

Food Prices During the Great Depression
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Please go to http:[http://www.ThisGreatDepression.com] to read more in general and go to [http://www.thisgreatdepression.com/food-prices-of-the-great-depression] to read more about food prices of The Great Depression

The site is dedicated to helping people survive This Great Depression.

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Environmental Issues in Japan

As an industrialized nation Japan must deal with tough environmental issues. Japan is the world's leading importer of exhaustible energy resources and the world's fifth largest emitter of greenhouse gases. It is a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol and also the country which hosted the conference in 1997. Under the Kyoto Protocol treaty Japan is obligated to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions to a level 6% lower than its 1990 levels. In addition, Japan must take other steps to curb global climate change.

Nuclear power provides about 35% of Japan's electricity. There are currently 63 nuclear power plants operating in Japan making it the second largest user of nuclear power in the world. All of these power plants produce waste which much be dealt with. Especially dangerous is HLW, or high-level radioactive waste. To address this issue the Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant was built in Ibaraki, Japan. There are many opponents to the opening of the plant, including Greenpeace, which feel the plant poses danger to surrounding residents. The opponents also feel Japan should be investing money in cleaner and safer renewable energy sources.

Japan is one of the world's largest consumers of fish. However, due to depleting ocean stocks the annual catch has been rapidly decreasing. Japan is the world's third largest consumer of fish, following China and Peru. Numbers of the prized bluefin tuna, known as the diamond of the sea in Japan, are dwindling causing fishing quotas to be reduced. Japan has been facing international pressure from environmentalists to curb its consumption of bluefin tuna.

Environmental Issues in Japan

Japan's whaling for "research purposes" has also attracted a great deal of negative international attention. The whale meat harvested from the research campaigns is sold in supermarkets and restaurants in Japan. Many people feel the Japanese JARPA research program is just an obvious cover for commercial whaling. The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, lead by Captain Paul Watson, uses controversial tactics to stop Japanese whaling vessels in the Antarctic. Two common methods used by Sea Shepherd are throwing rotten butter and powerful stink bombs at the Japanese whaling vessels.

Renewable energy accounts for only 1.3% of Japan's total energy production. Despite being technologically advanced and heavily dependent on oil imports, the country has set an unambitious goal of 1.6% by 2014. Currently Japan ranks 14th in the world for wind-power installations. With a lack of government policies to promote the use of renewable energies it is unlikely Japan will become a global leader in this area as many once thought.

Environmental Issues in Japan
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Alton Trevino lives in Japan and enjoys writing about Japanese history and culture. Please visit the following pages to learn more about Japanese culture and ancient Japan.

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Role of Youth in Nation's Development

Vision 2020 can be better described as vision 20/20. That is the perfect vision in American style and this 20/20 vision can be achieved only by young generation of India. It is well known that India is home to a significant proportion of youth of the world today. All the imperialists of the world are eyeing India as a source of technical manpower. They are looking at our boys and girls as a source of talents at low costs for their future super profits. If Indian youth make up their mind and work in close unity with working class people, they can foil the plans of Imperialism and Bourgeoisie. The plunder of India can be ended with political power in their hands. The workers, peasants, women and youth will ensure that there is work for all. They will ensure that what is produces is geared towards providing adequacy for all members of society.

Unfortunately no one is bothered to dream any such vision. Martin Luther has said, "I have a Dream" and the dream come largely true. If he had not thought of that dream he would have accomplished nothing in his life. To climb high one has to think of climbing the Everest. One may not go higher than 10000 feet but even that will not be attained if you have no better dreams of going up to the top floor of your office in a life.

In recent years the world has come to look at India with renewed respect, recognizing a strong and prosperous global power in the world. It is also a future when the fabled richness of India's art, culture, intellectual explorations and spirituals pursuits will begin to show its full radiance bringing much success to the troubled spirit of Modern India.

Role of Youth in Nation's Development

Is it a dream? Yes. Is it an impossible dream? No, it's not. This can be done by the Youth of Indains. Youth is the spring of Life. It is the age of discovery and dreams. When they dream they dream not only for the good future of themselves but also for the good future for nation and entire humanity. Their dreams take them to stars and galaxies to the far corners of the unknown and some of them like our own Kalpana Chawla pursue their dream, till they realize it and die for it in process.

If any section of the society in any country is most important for change, again it is the young people. Patriotism comes naturally to young people, but they also respond early to the call of Internationalism. The hopes of the youth are:

1. A world free of poverty, unemployment, inequality and exploitation of man by man.

2. A world free of discrimination on the grounds of race, colour, language and gender.

3. A world full of creative challenges and opportunities to conquer them.

But these are not just the empty hopes. Modern science and technology and increasing vistas of Socio Economic cooperation among nations have brought these hopes out in the reach of realization. In recent times Terrorism has emerged as one of the gravest threat to peace and democratic policy. Youth are drawn between acts of terrorism. In some cases it is not the terrorism, but a freedom struggle. This is how our neighbors are trying to justify its policy of cross border terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir. Youth organizations should carry out an awareness campaign to expose justification or condoning of terrorism anywhere and under whatever pretext.

Role of Youth:

A. The youth can play a vital role in the implementation of elimination of terrorism. If the energy, intelligence and resources of youth are fully and properly utilized the country will prosper.

B. The youth will have to compete with sporting spirit. Just look at the spirit of Internationalism that today prevails in the cricketing world. With the start of any cricket tournament, no matters which team wins, Cricket wins, Youthfulness will won. The spirit of oneness will win.

C. The youth would need to Aspire for entrepreneurship rather than conventional employment.

D. The hopes of young people can be fulfilled only in conditions of peace, only in a civilized and cooperative world order.

E. Young people are full of vibrant ideas. When properly motivated and sufficiently guided they want in their life.

F. Young people have energy to try out things and the patience to learn from mistakes. Giving them opportunities to plan, to decide and to work prepares them to face harsher realities in life.

G. Young participation is important because youth are the country's power. Youth recognize problems and can solve them. Youth are strong forces in social movements. They educate children about their rights. They help other young people attain a higher level of Intellectual ability and to become qualified adults.

What should be the vision of Young generation for India 2020? Vision 2020 says that:

1. Instead of Brain drain, we can be the magnets for bright minds world over.

2. Our Judicial system could be a model for fairness, promptness and incorruptibility.

3. Our Legislatures could be an acme of integrity, farsightedness and purposefulness.

4. Our habitats could be clean with abundant municipal services.

5. Our youth can be the Olympic Champions.

6. We can have 100% Literacy.

7. The Per Capita Income can go up in Geometric Proportions.

8. We can have full employment.

9. We can earn the reputation of being the most transparent and honest nation.

10. We could be the most competitive Nation.

India can become a developed nation only if everyone contributes to the best of his or her capacity and ability. Youth is wholly experimental and with the full utilization of the talents of the Youth, India will become a complete Nation. Let us hope for the same.

'Youth is like a fire

It crept forward.

A Spark at first

Growing into a flame

The brightening into a Blaze'.

Role of Youth in Nation's Development
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Atul SHiva is a Lecturer in Commerce in Sri Aurobindo College of Commerce and Management, Ludhiana. His areas of interest are Accounting, Finance, Economics, and Management.

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